Introduction
The population of the indonesian province aceh is ca. 4. Mio. The capital city of Aceh is called Banda Aceh. The area spans about 55.392 square kilomaters (about 3 % of the indonesian territory).
It is divided in 10 counties (kabupaten), two county seats (kotamadya) and 131 administrative districts (kecamatan) and 112 communities (kelurahan/desa). More than half of its territory is difficult to access.
Reasons for separatism
One reason was the strong centralization in the indonesian government system. Since the dutch tried to establish a federal system in competition to the independent republic in the last years of its occupation a federal system was mostly taboo.
Also the often bloody abolition of inner conflicts, for example the islamic uprising in 1957, universal struggle charta (Piagam Perjuangan Semesta alam, Permesta) and the crush of the communists in 1965/66 led to a loss of trust in the central government by the outer regions of indonesia.
The traumatic experiences during the Suharto era, in which the administrative power was even more centralized strengthened the frustration.
The strong military force used in inner conflicts and the strong centralization led in many parts of the acehnese population to a feeling of discrimination.
The consequence was the renunciation of the multi ethnic and multi religious states doctrine “Unity in diversity” (bhineka thunggal ika) respectively the integral philosophy (Pancasila). Instead of them, religious and regional concepts of identity were starched.
Guerilla movements, which first just fought for a better economic status and a revaluation of the region in the hierarchy of indonesia, now were stronger focussed on separatistic conceptions.
An own islamic acehnese identity developed already in the 13th century by the early influence of the islam and the resistance against invaders of all kind.
Also military defeats were defining the identity of the population as the ones who suffer.
The resistance against dutch was mostly supported by islamic groups. This groups hoped, to play a decisive role, after the obtainment of independence.
But the central government tried to weaken the islamic organizations and structures (for example the rescission of islamic tribunals). Sukarnos denial to grant the islam an exceptional position in the independent republic led to a negative approach of the central government by the acehnese population.
The reference to the resistance against the dutch was also used as ideologic munition in guerilla warfare by declaring the javanese to neocolonialists.
Feared consequences of a separation
A dissociation enforced by violence leads only very rarely to a democratic new beginning. After the secession of east timor some observers feared a continuing secession in indonesia or even the collapse of the indonesian nation.
A consequence of a collapsing indonesian nation would have been irrepressible
and would have promoted the formation of islamistic and dictatorial regimes.
The progress of separations, which would cause massive waves of migration and refugees could also overlap to other countries.
Some pessimists even feared the destabilization of the whole region south east asia.
About the GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka)
First resistance-movements against the central government in Jakarta, were already formed shortly after the independence of indonesia, because the islamic organization, which fought against the dutch felt betrayed by the central government.
As already mentioned, by the rescission of islamic tribunals and the denial of an exceptional position of the islam in indonesia by Sukarno.
The first movements fought mostly just to obtain acceptance and didn´t had separatistic intentions.
Through the boom of the oil and gas industry and also the export of wood, the conflicts grew, because the local population was excluded from the profits.
This led to the forming of a ethnic national intentions inside the resistance movements. This, still very small resistance movement was presented by the GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka).
But just a small part of this resistance fighters used violence to reach their goals, but although, the reaction of the central was government was brutal and oppressive.
The history of the GAM is normally splitted in 3 phases:
1. Phase: 1976 - 1979 (up to 200 active members)
The GAM was comparatively small and just badly armed. It was neither a political nor a military threat to the government in jakarta.
After the relatively fast disruption of the early GAM a lot of active members had been killed, others chose the exile.
2. Phase: 1989 - 1991 (up to 750 active members)
Because the majority of the population was still excluded from the gainings of the local resource the problems grew, the government . Because of these exclusion and also the concerted immigration of javanese workers, the conflicts erupted in partly violent protests by the local population, even before the GAM emerged again.
When the GAM emerged again, the local population supported the movement much more than in the early years of the GAM. Also, it was supported by Libya, which was supporting guerilla movements in all over world in this times.
Because of this, they also were better armed and trained and the GAM could act much more aggressive than before.
In the first month, they attacked police stations and military positions, later they also settlers and suspected informants came into the field of their vision.
The violence of the GAM and especially the counteractive measures of the government grew.
Amnesty international spoke, in face of the violation of human rights (torture and contract killings), of a shock therapy.
The amount of casualties of these violent era is reaching from 1258 (Human Rights Watch, about 2000 (Amnesty International) to even 5000 casualties by reports from other NGOs. The majority of the casualties were civilians.
By the massive military presence the government could reach a military victory in 1993, but it was a hollow victory, because they lost any support and trust by the local population.
3. Phase: 1999-2004 ( from 15.000 to 27.000 active members)
At times of the asian economic crises in the late 90´s protests and the demands for more democracy began in nearly all important cities in indonesia, especially after the resign of Suharto, who was just “elected” for another premiership in 1998.
After his enforced resign, the former vice president Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie assumed the affairs of state. Despite, he was a foster child of Suharto he introduced a new, more democratic beginning for indonesia.
But because of the economic crises and the collapse of suhartos authoritarian system, many control entities of the state were weakened.
In the beginning, the democratising enhanced hopes for more equity and autonmony in Aceh.
Because of the new liberties for the press, it was possible to investigate violations of human rights in aceh.
Also, a civil initiative of Students, named SIRA (Sentral Informasi Referendum Aceh ) or ARIC (Aceh Referundum Information Center)was founded, which demanded the independence of aceh.
In January 1999, a delegation of 42 delegates (Ulama, activists and studentes) met with president Habibie to expose their demands for autonomy.
Two months later a goverment delegation visited aceh, but didn´t make many confessions. The disappointed expectations adn broken promises about economic support, support of orphans and the prosecution of humand rights abuses led to a stronger loss of confidence in the new central government.
From 1991-1998 the GAM showed not much activity, but in the midst of 1998 flags and symbols of the GAM showed up on local protests in aceh, also some acehnese, who were suspected to cooperate with or spy for the central government were kidnapped or even killed.
Also the so called “Generation of avengers” (generasi pendedam) participated in the struggle between the GAM and the local government.
They were mostly teenagers, who were prepared to use violence to seek revenge for their experience of injustice and mischief in the past.
Many village leaders joined the independence movement, often by pressure of te GAM.
In August 1998 the state of emergency (DOM = Daerag Operasi Militer) was (pro forma) suspended, but in reality, the military still was in charge in aceh.
After isolated clashes the violence escalated in 1999. During the search for kidnapped soldiers, 40 civilians were killed near Lhokseumawe.
In february 1999 28 people were killed in a shooting near Idi Cut, when they returning from a peaceful meeting inside mosque.
These incidents provided a strong inflow to the GAM and a strong backing by the local population.
In the midst of 1999 the number of members in the GAM was just about 800, but 2 years later it grew up to 2.000-3.000 armed activists. Furthermore also 13.000-24.000 militia were controlling nearly 80 % of the acehnese territory.
In government of president Wahid several attempts to end the violence were started, but they mostly failed by inner conflicts and also the by the inconsistent decisions of Wahid in the matter of an acehnese referendum about the autonomy.
After several attacks against the oil production facilities of Exxon Mobile in 2001, the government sent again reinforcements to aceh.
All together, it can be assumed, that the indonesian government won many small victories in the battle against the GAM, but it failed in the big picture and even strengthened the GAM by attacks on civilians and human rights abuses in general.
A former small innocuous grew up to well equipped, trained and structured organization.
In 2004 the willingness of president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono to accept negotiations cleared the way for a solution, but in this still 35.000 soldiers were stationed in aceh.
The tentative end of conflict
After the disaster of the tsunami at the end of 2004 compelled all involved camps to accept negotiations.
The main controversial subjects in the negotiations were the former disappointing experiences in earlier negotiations in 2002 and the demand of the GAM to found a regional party, while the government just want to accept a party for whole indonesia.
But the GAM was compelled to accept compromises, because the tsunami weakened its structure and had just 1.000 armed forces left.
Despite the negotiations it still came to small skirmishes till mid 2005. In July 2005 the final breakthrough was achieved in the negotiations, which were held in Helsinki.
Aceh received a widely autonomy but didn´t gain independence. Also a general amnesty for all member of the GAM was released and it was granted to the GAM to found an own party.
In return the GAM demobilized till december the 19th and dissolved its military arm on December the 27th 2005.
The hopes for a durable peace in aceh are favorable, because the GAM is lacking of resources to keep up a rebellion and also because the peace process was guided and observed by observers of the EU- and ASEAN-states.
Also measures for an accounting for the past were initiated. A truth commission and a court for human rights were founded.
Sources:
- Antje Mißbach, Freiheitskämpfer oder Geschäftemacher – Der bewaffnete Kampf der Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM) unter Berücksichtigung klassischer und neuer Guerillatheorien, Logos Verlag Berlin
- Universität Hamburg – Department Sozialwissenschaften (www.sozialwiss.uni-hamburg.de/publish/Ipw/Akuf/kriege/255ak_indonesien_aceh.htm)
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